Ben Shapiro Event at Berkeley to be Countered with Speak Out Event

A PEOPLE’S SPEAK OUT AGAINST WHITE SUPREMACY, MISOGYNY, XENOPHOBIA AND FASCISM

THE FIGHT FOR WHAT’S TRUE &
WHAT WE MUST DO
Sproul Plaza, UC Berkeley Thursday Sept. 14th, 6pm

Who Is Refuse Fascism?

RefuseFascism.org is a movement of people coming from diverse perspectives, united in our recognition that the Trump/Pence Regime poses a catastrophic danger to humanity and the planet and that it is our responsibility to drive them from power. This means working and organizing with all our creativity and determination toward November 4 when many thousands of people will fill the streets of cities and towns, beginning a struggle that continues day after day and night after night, eventually involving millions of people, demanding: This Nightmare Must End: The Trump/Pence Regime Must Go!

The September 14, 2017 Event

Sproul Plaza is where students, faculty, and all concerned people should be on September 14 when Ben Shapiro speaks at 7pm on so-called “Campus Thuggery.” Shapiro is coming to campus to spread ugly fascist views dressed up in slick-talking “intellectual” garb. Beneath his “reasonable” tone lies Shapiro’s real thuggery: Shapiro mocked Trayvon Martin on what would have been his 21st birthday, insists that being transgender is a “mental illness,” compares abortion to the Holocaust and thinks women should be forced to bear children against their will, argues that racial discrimination is not a “continuing factor in American life” and that poverty among Black people is not a result of racism but of Black culture, believes in a “clash of civilizations” and calls Islamic civilization “the polar opposite of the West,” wrote that “Arabs like to bomb crap and live in open sewage,” and more. This is harmful! He, along with fascists of many stripes, have targeted Berkeley because reversing Berkeley’s radical history would be a major advance for the consolidation of fascism on campuses everywhere and throughout society.

Fascists must NOT have an audience. DON’T GO. Or if you do go, WALK OUT when Shapiro starts to speak, and come to the Speak Out.

No, Chancellor Christ, speech by fascists and those who intellectually defend them is not what humanity needs and will not contribute to campuses acting as centers of critical thought and debate. Fascism already has a platform – the biggest and most powerful platform in the world: the White House! Not only do Trump, Pence, Sessions, Kelly, and the rest of the Regime constantly put forward fascist ideas about Muslims, immigrants, women, LGBTQ, Black people, people around the world, and more… they are using the power of the state – and unleashing the extra-legal mob – to destroy countless lives and threaten humanity as a whole.

What this moment in history requires is resistance to fascism, including discussion and debate over what fascism is, its roots, where it can lead, and what needs to be done to stop it. And, people – especially students – joining in the fight to drive the fascist Trump/Pence Regime from power! Stand up on Sept 14 and start getting organized for November 4th, when many thousands will take to the streets in cities and towns across the country, day after day and night after night, growing to millions and refusing to leave until our demand is met: This Nightmare Must End: The Trump/Pence Regime Must Go!

Contact Refuse Fascism to endorse, to speak or perform, or bring your class or organization to participate. EVERYONE, from a diversity of perspectives, who refuses to accept a fascist America is invited!

There is NO moral “equivalence” between those seeking to impose white supremacy and fascism, and those fighting against this nightmare.

DPRK threatens U.S. with the greatest pain and suffering it has ever gone through

“The DPRK is ready and willing to use any form of ultimate means.”

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea released the following statement on Monday, September 11, 2017:

The sanctions and pressure racket of the U.S. to completely obliterate the DPRK’s sovereignty and right to existence is reaching an extremely reckless phase.

The U.S. is going frantic to fabricate the harshest ever “sanctions resolution” by manipulating the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) over the DPRK’s ICBM mountable H-bomb test.

The DPRK has developed and perfected the super-powerful thermo-nuclear weapon as a means to deter the ever-increasing hostile moves and nuclear threat of the U.S. and defuse the danger of nuclear war looming over the Korean peninsula and the region.

However, instead of making a right choice based on rational analysis of the overall situation, the U.S. is trying to use the DPRK’s legitimate self-defensive measures as an excuse to strangle and completely suffocate it.

Since the U.S. is revealing its nature as a blood-thirsty beast obsessed with the wild dream of reversing the DPRK’s development of the state nuclear force which has already reached the completion phase, there is no way that the DPRK is going to wait and let the U.S. feast on it.

The DPRK is closely following the moves of the U.S. with vigilance.

In case the U.S. eventually does rig up the illegal and unlawful “resolution” on harsher sanctions, the DPRK shall make absolutely sure that the U.S. pays due price.

The DPRK is ready and willing to use any form of ultimate means.

“Storax Sedan” underground nuclear test – July 1962
Storax Sedan (yield 104 kt) – shallow underground nuclear test conducted by the United States on 6 July 1962 at Nevada Test Site. The main purpose of the detonation was to asses the non military dimension of a nuclear explosion. Image in the public domain
Photo: The Official CTBTO Photostream

The forthcoming measures to be taken by the DPRK will cause the U.S. the greatest pain and suffering it had ever gone through in its entire history.

The world will witness how the DPRK tames the U.S. gangsters by taking series of action tougher than they have ever envisaged.

The U.S. should be fully aware that as long as it persists with intense political, economic and military confrontation with the DPRK in defiance of its repeated stern warning, the former will never be able to avoid its permanent extinction.

Photo illustration By Mark Fahey from Sydney, Australia (DSCF3016) [CC BY 2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Hurricane Footage Courtesy International Space Station 9.8.17

The International Space Station passed over two major Atlantic hurricanes on Friday, Sept. 8. First, the station flew approximately 250 miles over Hurricane Jose at approximately 10:10 a.m. EDT while the Category 3 storm was in the Atlantic just east of the Caribbean. One orbit of the Earth later, the station flew over Hurricane Irma at approximately 11:40 a.m. EDT.

Credits: NASA

Hurricane Names Explained

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) maintains rotating lists of names which are appropriate for each Tropical Cyclone basin. If a cyclone is particularly deadly or costly, then its name is retired and replaced by another one.

1. What is the difference between “hurricane”, “cyclone” and “typhoon”?

“Hurricane”, “cyclone” and “typhoon” are different terms for the same weather phenomenon which is accompanied by torrential rain and maximum sustained wind speeds (near centre) exceeding 119 kilometers per hour:

In the western North Atlantic, central and eastern North Pacific, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, such a weather phenomenon is called “hurricanes”.
In the western North Pacific, it is called “typhoons”.
In the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, it is called “cyclones”.
In western South Pacific and southeast India Ocean, it is called “severe tropical cyclones.”
In the southwest India Ocean, it is called “tropical cyclones.”

The practice of naming storms (tropical cyclones) began years ago in order to help in the quick identification of storms in warning messages because names are presumed to be far easier to remember than numbers and technical terms. Many agree that appending names to storms makes it easier for the media to report on tropical cyclones, heightens interest in warnings and increases community preparedness.

Experience shows that the use of short, distinctive given names in written as well as spoken communications is quicker and less subject to error than the older more cumbersome latitude-longitude identification methods. These advantages are especially important in exchanging detailed storm information between hundreds of widely scattered stations, coastal bases, and ships at sea.

In the beginning, storms were named arbitrarily. An Atlantic storm that ripped off the mast of a boat named Antje became known as Antje’s hurricane. Then the mid-1900’s saw the start of the practice of using feminine names for storms.

In the pursuit of a more organized and efficient naming system, meteorologists later decided to identify storms using names from a list arranged alpabetically. Thus, a storm with a name which begins with A, like Anne, would be the first storm to occur in the year. Before the end of the 1900’s, forecasters started using male names for those forming in the Southern Hemisphere.

Since 1953, Atlantic tropical storms have been named from lists originated by the National Hurricane Center. They are now maintained and updated by an international committee of the World Meteorological Organization. The original name lists featured only women’s names. In 1979, men’s names were introduced and they alternate with the women’s names. Six lists are used in rotation. Thus, the 2015 list will be used again in 2021.

The only time that there is a change in the list is if a storm is so deadly or costly that the future use of its name on a different storm would be inappropriate for reasons of sensitivity. If that occurs, then at an annual meeting by the WMO Tropical Cyclone Committees (called primarily to discuss many other issues) the offending name is stricken from the list and another name is selected to replace it. Infamous storm names such as Haiyan (Philippines, 2013), Sandy (USA, 2012), Katrina (USA, 2005), Mitch (Honduras, 1998) and Tracy (Darwin, 1974) are examples for this.

The six lists are used in rotation and the 2017 list will be used again in 2023.

Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico and the North Atlantic Names
2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022
Arlene Bret Cindy Don Emily Franklin Gert Harvey Irma Jose Katia Lee Maria Nate Ophelia Philippe Rina Sean Tammy Vince Whitney	Alberto Beryl Chris Debby Ernesto Florence Gordon Helene Isaac Joyce Kirk Leslie Michael Nadine Oscar Patty Rafael Sara Tony Valerie William	Andrea Barry Chantal Dorian Erin Fernand Gabrielle Humberto Imelda Jerry Karen Lorenzo Melissa Nestor Olga Pablo Rebekah Sebastien Tanya Van Wendy	Arthur Bertha Cristobal Dolly Edouard Fay Gonzalo Hanna Isaias Josephine Kyle Laura Marco Nana Omar Paulette Rene Sally Teddy Vicky Wilfred	Ana Bill Claudette Danny Elsa Fred Grace Henri Ida Julian Kate Larry Mindy Nicholas Odette Peter Rose Sam Teresa Victor Wanda	Alex Bonnie Colin Danielle Earl Fiona Gaston Hermine Ian Julia Karl Lisa Martin Nicole Owen Paula Richard Shary Tobias Virginie Walter

Berkeley counseling for impact speakers “have on individuals’ sense of safety & belonging”

Ben Shapiro visit: Campus details logistics and resources

Thursday, Sept. 7, 2017

In advance of talk show host Ben Shapiro’s appearance next Thursday, Sept. 14, at UC Berkeley, Executive Vice Chancellor and Provost Paul Alivisatos today sent out this message detailing campus logistics for the event:

Dear UC Berkeley community,

This is an important time for all of us as we work together to uphold our commitment to free speech and to the principles of community, including respect for the dignity of all members of our UC Berkeley community. I recommend that you consider viewing Chancellor Christ’s recent Berkeley Forum speech and the Q&A that followed.

Today I write about specific commitments we are making to support our community, as well as to share logistics and security arrangements for Sept. 14. That evening, from 7-9 p.m., political commentator and radio talk show host Ben Shapiro will speak at Zellerbach Hall at the invitation of one of our registered student groups. Our commitment to free speech, as well as to the law, mandates that the students who invited Shapiro be able to host their event for those who wish to hear him speak. Our commitment to the principles of community mandates that all students, faculty and staff be able to be present on campus, engaging in their regular academic activities without fear. Achieving this poses unusual challenges for us; this memo lays out the arrangements that we are putting in place.

Building closures and parking restrictions

At 4 p.m. on Sept. 14, UCPD will establish a closed perimeter around Zellerbach Hall and surrounding buildings. Buildings near Zellerbach Hall will be closed at 4 p.m., with no access permitted. The perimeter will be assembled over the course of the day starting in the morning. Affected buildings include: César E. Chávez Student Center, Alumni House, Martin Luther King Jr. Student Union, Sproul Hall and Eshleman Hall. There will be a limited number of access points along the perimeter; beginning at 5:30 p.m., a ticket to the event will be required to gain entry into the perimeter.

Parking will be closed ALL DAY on Sept. 14 at Barrow Lane Parking Spaces, Peppertree Lane Parking Spaces, North Sproul Lot and the ASUC Garage.

Alternative options for those who work in closed buildings

We will offer as many options as possible so that students, faculty and staff who work in buildings being closed can access alternative spaces and services. Campus colleges and schools have made spaces available to help meet these needs and to welcome those affected. A system is being set up to match those needing alternative spaces with the available spaces. Please check with your manager or faculty leader about any changes to your work or class activities on Sept. 14. I encourage managers and supervisors of staff, as well as faculty, to exercise discretion and flexibility as they explore alternative arrangements.

Logistics and security at Zellerbach Hall

Tickets to the Shapiro event will be available shortly, pending final decisions on logistics and ticket distribution.

Based on UCPD’s security recommendations, attendees must present a photo ID when picking up their tickets. No blocks of tickets will be made available to individuals or groups.
As is standard practice, prior to the event UCPD will provide a list of prohibited items. Our police will seek to deter and confront unlawful behavior, while strictly enforcing laws and policies regarding individuals wearing masks or carrying weapons of any sort.
Members of the campus community are encouraged to subscribe to Nixle to receive security updates.
An increased and highly visible police presence will be on campus on Sept 14.

Engage with respect and keep safe

Some may wish to attend the event and hear the speaker to form their own views. Others may wish to stay away. Some may wish to protest. All activities can be done peacefully and with respect. If you choose to protest, please seek ways to protest peacefully and safely while observing rules related to the student code of conduct and our Principles of Community. If events escalate around you, please strongly consider leaving.

Support and counseling services for students, staff and faculty

We are deeply concerned about the impact some speakers may have on individuals’ sense of safety and belonging. No one should be made to feel threatened or harassed simply because of who they are or for what they believe. For that reason, the following support services are being offered and encouraged:

A Statement from Associate Vice Chancellor and Dean of Students Joseph D. Greenwell

Recently, our campus and the greater Berkeley community has become a meeting point for extreme elements from opposing ends of the political spectrum who have at times sought to violently confront one another at demonstrations. These events may also attract and involve those who espouse hateful rhetoric that runs counter to our University’s values.

I want to re-affirm our shared commitment to the campus Principles of Community(link is external), as well as share this recent message from Chancellor Christ(link is external) about our paired commitments to Free Speech and safety.

We recognize these events can engender harm for some. If you need support, the campus has several resources, including counseling services. For help navigating these resources, please contact my office(link sends e-mail), or visit our Well-being Page and our Support Page.

Take care of yourselves and each other.

Sincerely,
Joseph D.Greenwell
Associate Vice Chancellor and Dean of Students

Red Balloon Scare Explained

When the Lititz Borough Police Department in Pennsylvania was called in to investigate a mysterious red balloon tied to a sewer grate (suspicious balloon pictured below), brave crime fighters quickly responded, referring alarmed citizens to the official trailer of the 2017 release of Stephen King’s “It.”

Once police determined the red balloon was not a public threat, they decided to have a little fun, posting the following photo and summary of the full scale investigation below.

Courtesy Lititz Borough Police Department Facebook Page.

Sooooo our Red Balloon and “IT” post we posted earlier today took on a life its own(no pun intended), and now due to widespread media coverage all over the country and intense public scrutiny and outcry, we have turned the investigation over to our Criminal Investigations Division for further investigation and prosecution of the person(s), errr ah, “thing” responsible. CID wasted no time springing into action, here’s one of them checking for fingerprints with their ever so handy can of “duster.” Don’t worry everyone, we’ll have the person or “thing” responsible in custody in no time, these guys really know what they’re doing! P.S. Don’t tell them that Clowns wear gloves, we want to see how long this keeps them occupied! 😂😂

Red balloons sightings are now being reported across the United States, Australia and Europe. The movie will be released September 8, 2017.

DeBaptismal Certificate Offered by Freedom from Religion Foundation

Still smarting over having been dunked in a church baptismal tub at age 12? Indignant that a congregation still claims you as a believer based on baptismal records? Wishing you could formally renounce a religion that was imposed on you as a helpless babe in swaddling clothes?

The Freedom From Religion Foundation has the answer: a genuine “DeBaptismal Certificate.”

The certificate bears the tongue-in-cheek saying of 19th century freethinker Robert G. Ingersoll: “With soap, baptism is a good thing.”

To download your own free copy, visit

https://ffrf.org/publications/debaptism-certificate

FFRF also offers a variety of downloads as posters, billboards, and more.

PRRI Releases Largest Survey of American Religious and Denominational Identity Ever Conducted

09.06.2017

Survey of 101,000 Americans chronicles the country’s changing religious landscape, including the declining dominance of white Christian groups and a more diverse future

WASHINGTON—With aging white Christian groups now accounting for fewer than half of the public and non-Christian groups constituting the country’s youngest religious communities, the future of American religion will likely look strikingly different than its past. A massive new survey out today from PRRI reveals seismic shifts in the religious landscape over the last few decades, including the sharp growth of the religiously unaffiliated—a category that includes atheists, agnostics, and those who say they do not identify with any particular religion—along with racial and ethnic changes that are transforming nearly all major Christian denominations.

These are among the major findings from “America’s Changing Religious Identity,” a report released today by PRRI. The report is based on findings from PRRI’s 2016 American Values Atlas, the single largest survey of American religious and denominational identity ever conducted, based on interviews with more than 101,000 Americans from all 50 states conducted across 2016. The report includes detailed information about religious affiliation, denominational ties, political affiliation, and other important demographic characteristics.

“This report provides solid evidence of a new, second wave of white Christian decline that is occurring among white evangelical Protestants just over the last decade in the U.S.,” says Robert P. Jones, PRRI CEO and author of The End of White Christian America. “Prior to 2008, white evangelical Protestants seemed to be exempt from the waves of demographic change and disaffiliation that were eroding the membership bases of white mainline Protestants and white Catholics. We now see that these waves simply crested later for white evangelical Protestants.”

Today, only 43% of Americans identify as white Christian, and only 30% as white Protestant. In 1976, roughly eight in ten (81%) Americans identified as white and identified with a Christian denomination, and a majority (55%) were white Protestants.

Fewer than one in five (17%) Americans now identify as white evangelical Protestant, but they accounted for nearly one-quarter (23%) of the public just a decade ago in 2006. Over the same period, white Catholics dropped five percentage points from 16% to 11%, and white mainline Protestants have shed an equal number, decreasing from 18% to 13%.

The Catholic Church is also undergoing a dramatic transformation as its share of white, non-Hispanic members dwindles and its Hispanic membership rises. Twenty-five years earlier in 1991, nearly nine in ten (87%) Catholics were white, non-Hispanic, compared to 55% today. Among Catholics under the age of 30, fewer than four in ten (36%) are white, non-Hispanic, compared to 52% who are Hispanic.

More evidence that America’s future is less white and less Christian: Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, and the religiously unaffiliated are all far younger than white Christian groups. At least one-third of Muslims (42%), Hindus (36%), and Buddhists (35%) are under the age of 30. Roughly one-third (34%) of religiously unaffiliated Americans are also under 30. In contrast, slightly more than one in ten white Catholics (11%), white evangelical Protestants (11%), and white mainline Protestants (14%) are under 30.

“The unprecedented growth of the religiously unaffiliated has made this group much more complex,” said PRRI Research Director Dan Cox. “For example, atheists and agnostics, two of the most known subgroups among the unaffiliated, account for just a sliver of the entire group.”

Atheists and agnostics account for only about one-quarter (27%) of all religiously unaffiliated Americans. Nearly six in ten (58%) religiously unaffiliated Americans identify as secular, or someone who is not religious; 16% of religiously unaffiliated Americans nonetheless report that they identify as a “religious person.”

Additional findings:

Non-Christian religious groups are growing, but they still represent less than one in ten Americans combined. Jews constitute 2% of all Americans while Muslims, Buddhists, and Hindus each constitute only 1% of the public. All other non-Christian religions constitute an additional 1%.
There are now 20 states in which no religious group comprises a greater share of residents than the religiously unaffiliated. These states tend to be more concentrated in the western U.S., although they include a few New England states, as well. More than four in ten (41%) residents of Vermont and approximately one-third of Americans in Oregon (36%), Washington (35%), Hawaii (34%), Colorado (33%), and New Hampshire (33%) are religiously unaffiliated.
No state is less religiously diverse than Mississippi. The state is heavily Protestant and dominated by a single denomination: Baptist. Six in ten (60%) Protestants in Mississippi are Baptist. No state has a greater degree of religious diversity than New York.
The cultural center of the Catholic Church is shifting south. The Northeast is no longer the epicenter of American Catholicism—although at 41% Catholic, Rhode Island remains the most Catholic state in the country. Immigration from predominantly Catholic countries in Latin America means new Catholic populations are settling in the Southwest. In 1972, roughly seven in ten Catholics lived in either the Northeast (41%) or the Midwest (28%). Only about one-third of Catholics lived in the South (13%) or West (18%). Today, a majority of Catholics now reside in the South (29%) or West (25%). Currently, only about one-quarter (26%) of the U.S. Catholic population lives in the Northeast, and 20% live in the Midwest.
Jews, Hindus, and Unitarian-Universalists stand out as the most educated groups in the American religious landscape. More than one-third of Jews (34%), Hindus (38%), and Unitarian-Universalists (43%) hold post-graduate degrees. Notably, Muslims are significantly more likely than white evangelical Protestants to have at least a four-year college degree (33% vs. 25%, respectively).
Asian or Pacific-Islander Americans have a significantly different religious profile than other racial or ethnic groups. There are as many Asian or Pacific-Islander Americans affiliated with non-Christian religions as with Christian religious groups. And one-third (34%) are religiously unaffiliated.
Nearly half of LGBT Americans are religiously unaffiliated. Nearly half (46%) of Americans who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) are religiously unaffiliated. This is roughly twice the number of Americans overall (24%) who are religiously unaffiliated.
White Christians have become a minority in the Democratic Party. Fewer than one in three (29%) Democrats today are white Christian, compared to half (50%) one decade earlier. Only 14% of young Democrats (age 18 to 29) identify as white Christian. Forty percent identify as religiously unaffiliated.
White evangelical Protestants remain the dominant religious force in the GOP. More than one-third (35%) of all Republicans identify as white evangelical Protestant, a proportion that has remained roughly stable over the past decade. Roughly three-quarters (73%) of Republicans belong to a white Christian religious group.

The topline, full methodology, and additional findings and analysis can be found here: https://www.prri.org/research/american-religious-landscape-christian-religiously-unaffiliated/

Methodology

The 2016 American Values Atlas (AVA) is a project of PRRI. Results were based on 101,438 bilingual telephone interviews (including 60,355 cell phone interviews) conducted between January 6, 2016 and January 10, 2017 by professional interviewers under the direction of SSRS. The sample was designed to represent the total U.S. adult population from all 50 states, including Hawaii and Alaska. The AVA was made possible by generous grants from The Ford Foundation, The Nathan Cummings Foundation, The Carnegie Corporation of New York, The Evelyn and Walter Haas, Jr. Fund, The Gill Foundation, and The Unitarian Universalist Veatch Program at Shelter Rock.

PRRI is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit, nonpartisan organization specializing in research at the intersection of religion, values, and public life.

PRRI (Public Religion Research Institute) is a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization dedicated to conducting independent research at the intersection of religion, culture, and public policy.

PRRI’s research explores and illuminates America’s changing cultural, religious, and political landscape. PRRI’s mission is to help journalists, scholars, pundits, thought leaders, clergy, and the general public better understand debates on public policy issues, and the important cultural and religious dynamics shaping American society and politics.

North Korea Seismic Data in Comparison with Previous Tests

The seismological observatory NORSAR at Kjeller, Norway, has detected the latest underground nuclear test by North Korea.

NORSAR has recorded signals from an underground nuclear test explosion conducted by North Korea at its Punggye-ri test site on 3 September 2017. NORSAR has estimated the explosive yield at 120 kilotons TNT, based on a seismic magnitude of 5.8.In comparison, the explosive yield of the nuclear bomb dropped on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 was estimated at 15 kilotons TNT, while the bomb dropped on Nagasaki three days later was 20 kilotons TNT.

The figure above shows at the bottom the seismic recording of the latest test in North Korea made at NORSAR’s station in Hedmark, Norway. The five upper traces show recordings at the same station for the five preceding tests, conducted by North Korea in 2006, 2009, 2013 and 2016 (two explosions in 2016). Today’s test is as can be seen from this figure clearly the strongest so far.

The test site in North Korea is located at a distance of 7360 km from NORSAR’s seismic station in Hedmark. Given that the seismic waves take approximately 11 minutes to propagate from North Korea to Norway, the measurements indicate that this explosion took place at 03:30 UTC.

The figure below shows the estimated locations within the Pungggye-ri test site of the five previous tests (red dots). The tests are conducted in the tunnel system inside the mountain. The area of the likely location of the most recent test is indicated in the figure. Some additional work is required in order to estimate a precise location.

North Korea claims that this was a test of a hydrogen bomb; the same claim was made for previous tests. It is not possible from the seismic data alone to determine if this was a test of a hydrogen bomb, but we can say in general that the credibility of the claim increases with increasing explosive yield. Possible leakage of radionuclides may be registered later and may indicate the type of bomb. These data may be available in a matter of weeks, if there is a leakage from the test site.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS TESTS

Nuclear explosions have been detonated in all environments: above ground, underground and underwater. Bombs have been detonated on top of towers, onboard barges, suspended from balloons, on the earth’s surface, underwater to depths of 600m, underground to depths of more than 2,400m and in horizontal tunnels. Test bombs have been dropped by aircraft and fired by rockets to altitudes of over 500 kilometres.

Atmospheric testing

Atmospheric testing refers to explosions which take place in the atmosphere.

All told, of the over 2,000 nuclear explosions detonated worldwide between 16 July 1945 (United States) and 29 July 1996 (China), 25 % or over 500 bombs were exploded in the atmosphere: over 200 by the United States, over 200 by the Soviet Union, about 20 by Britain, about 50 by France and over 20 by China.

International concern over radioactive fallout resulting from atmospheric tests escalated in the mid 1950s. In March 1954, the United States tested its hydrogen bomb Castle Bravo in the Pacific’s Marshall Islands. The Bravo test created the worst radiological disaster in the United States’ testing history. By accident, local civilians on the Marshall Islands, U.S. servicemen stationed on Rongerik atoll, and the Japanese fishing trawler Lucky Dragon, were contaminated with the fallout.

Nuclear weapon tests have been carried out in all environments: above ground, underground and underwater.

: Signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty, 5 August 1963. Secretary of State Dean Rusk signing for the United States; Foreign Minister Andre Gromyko, signing for the Soviet Union; and Lord Hume signing for the United Kingdom.

Atmospheric testing was banned by the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty. Negotiations had largely responded to the international community’s grave concern over the radioactive fallout resulting from atmospheric tests. The United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom became Parties to the Treaty; France and China did not. France conducted its last atmospheric test in 1974, China in 1980.

CTBTO’s infrasound IMS stations are used to detect nuclear explosions by monitoring low-frequency sound waves in the atmosphere. CTBTO Radionuclide IMS stations are designed to detect radioactive particles emanating from an atmospheric test.

High-altitude nuclear testing

: Artificial aurora over Honolulu created by the 1962 Starfish Prime test.

Around 20 nuclear tests were conducted by the United States and the Soviet Union in high altitudes or lower outer space between 1958 and 1962. The main aim of these explosions, detonated at heights between 40 and 540 kilometres, was to determine the feasibility of nuclear weapons as anti-ballistic missile defense or anti-satellite weapons. The largest such test, the 1.4 megaton U.S. Starfish Prime test in 1962, damaged and destroyed several of the satellites in orbit at the time and led to wide-spread power outages on the ground. High-altitude or outer space nuclear testing is equally banned by the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty as well as by the 1967 Outer Space Treaty.

Underwater testing

Underwater testing refers to explosions which take place underwater or close to the surface of the water. Relatively few underwater tests have been conducted. The first underwater nuclear test – ‘Baker’ (video) – was conducted by the United States in 1946 at its Pacific Proving Grounds in the Marshall Islands with the purpose of evaluating the effects of nuclear weapons used against naval vessels. Later, in 1955, the United States’ Operation Wigwam conducted a single underwater nuclear test at a depth of 600 m to determine the vulnerability of submarines to nuclear explosions.

Underwater nuclear explosions close to the surface can disperse large amounts of radioactive water and steam, contaminating nearby ships, structures and individuals.

Underwater nuclear testing was banned by the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty. The CTBTO’s hydroacoustic IMS stations are those best suited to detect nuclear explosions underwater.

Of the over 2,000 nuclear explosions detonated worldwide between 1945 and 1996, 25 % or over 500 bombs were exploded in the atmosphere.

Underground testing

Underground testing means that nuclear explosions are detonated at varying depths under the surface of the earth. These comprised the majority (i.e. about 75%) of all nuclear explosions detonated during the Cold War (1945–1989); that is, over 800 of all tests conducted by the United States and nearly 500 of all tests conducted by the Soviet Union.

When the explosion is fully contained, underground nuclear testing emits negligible fallout compared to atmospheric testing. However, if underground nuclear tests “vent” to the surface, they can produce considerable radioactive debris. Underground testing is usually evident through seismic activity related to the yield of the nuclear device.

Underground nuclear testing was banned by the 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) that bans all nuclear explosions anywhere, by anyone.

75 % of all nuclear explosions have been conducted underground.

: Radionuclide station 56, Peleduy, Russian Federation

The CTBTO’s seismic IMS stations are used to detect nuclear explosions underground. The seismic data is combined with radionuclide data. Only the radionuclide technology can determine if an explosion is nuclear in origin; its stations and laboratories around the world monitor the presence of particulates and/or noble gases in the atmosphere.

https://www.ctbto.org/nuclear-testing/history-of-nuclear-testing/types-of-nuclear-weapons-tests/

COURTESY CTBTO

The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) bans nuclear explosions by everyone, everywhere: on the Earth’s surface, in the atmosphere, underwater and underground.

Why is the CTBT important?
It makes it very difficult for countries to develop nuclear bombs for the first time, or for countries that already have them, to make more powerful bombs. It also prevents the huge damage caused by radioactivity from nuclear explosions to humans, animals and plants.